Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license
Authors
1 Department of sport sciences, Faculty of humanities, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran.
2 Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran
3 Department of Physical Education, Bandar Anzali Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar Anzali, Iran
Abstract
Warm and humid conditions are the main limiting factor in long-term activities. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of pre-cooling (PC) on exhaustion time, plasma levels of lactate and, electrolytes status of untrained men following an exhaustive exercise in the heat conditions. The participants were 20 untrained male students aged 19 to 21, which were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups (n=10). Core body temperature, skin temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, plasma lactate, and electrolytes were measured in three stages: at baseline, after warm-up and PC, and following the exhaustive test. The PC method consisted of immersion in the cold water (26 °C) for 10 minutes (ambient temperature 32-34 °C). The exhaustive exercise protocol included treadmill running (at 33 °C, 50% humidity) at the speed of 7 km/h, which gradually increased to 10 km/h up to exhaustion. The SPANOVA was used for data analysis; and the criterion of significance was set as p< 0.05. Exercise time to exhaustion was longer (p<0.0001) in the PC than in the control conditions. PC decreased oral (p=0.05) and skin (p<0.0001) temperatures and lactate level (p=0.0001). However, there were no significant differences in plasma K and Na concentration. In conclusion, the PC increases endurance performance in a hot environment through enhances heat storage, decreases lactate level and cardiovascular strain.
Keywords
Main Subjects
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2. Nybo L, Rasmussen P, Sawka MN. Performance in the heat—physiological factors of importance for hyperthermia‐induced fatigue. Comprehensive Physiology. 2011;4(2):657-89.
3. Jones PR, Barton C, Morrissey D, Maffulli N, Hemmings S. Pre-cooling for endurance exercise performance in the heat: a systematic review. BMC medicine. 2012;10(1):166.
اثر غوطهوری در آب خنک بر زمان واماندگی، مقدار لاکتات و شاخصهای الکترولیتی ... 209
4. Brotherhood JR. Heat stress and strain in exercise and sport. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2008;11(1):6-19.
5. Wingo JE, Low DA, Keller DM, Brothers RM, Shibasaki M, Crandall CG. Skin blood flow and local temperature independently modify sweat rate during passive heat stress in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 2010.
6. Wendt D, Van Loon LJ, Lichtenbelt WDM. Thermoregulation during exercise in the heat. Sports medicine. 2007;37(8):669-82.
7. Nybo L. Hyperthermia and fatigue. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2008.
8. González-Alonso J, Calbet JA. Reductions in systemic and skeletal muscle blood flow and oxygen delivery limit maximal aerobic capacity in humans. Circulation. 2003;107(6):824-30.
9. Fitts RH. Cellular mechanisms of muscle fatigue. Physiological reviews. 1994;74(1):49-94.
10. Lamb GD, Stephenson DG. Point: lactic acid accumulation is an advantage during muscle activity. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md: 1985). 2006;100(4):1410.
11. Jentjens RL, Wagenmakers AJ, Jeukendrup AE. Heat stress increases muscle glycogen use but reduces the oxidation of ingested carbohydrates during exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2002;92(4):1562-72.
12. Parkin J, Carey M, Zhao S, Febbraio M. Effect of ambient temperature on human skeletal muscle metabolism during fatiguing submaximal exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1999;86(3):902-8.
13. Bongers CC, Hopman MT, Eijsvogels TM. Cooling interventions for athletes: an overview of effectiveness, physiological mechanisms, and practical considerations. Temperature. 2017;4(1):60-78.
14. Gibson OR, James CA, Mee JA, Willmott AG, Turner G, Hayes M, et al. Heat alleviation strategies for athletic performance: a review and practitioner guidelines. Temperature. 2020;7(1):3-36.
15. Ross M, Abbiss C, Laursen P, Martin D, Burke L. Precooling methods and their effects on athletic performance. Sports Medicine. 2013;43(3):207-25.
16. Siegel R, Maté J, Watson G, Nosaka K, Laursen PB. Pre-cooling with ice slurry ingestion leads to similar run times to exhaustion in the heat as cold water immersion. Journal of sports sciences. 2012;30(2):155-65.
17. James C, Richardson A, Watt P, Gibson O, Maxwell N. Physiological responses to incremental exercise in the heat following internal and external precooling. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2015;25:190-9.
18. Montain SJ, Coyle EF. Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1992;73(4):1340-50.
19. Faulkner SH, Broekhuijzen I, Raccuglia M, Hupperets M, Hodder SG, Havenith G. The threshold ambient temperature for the use of precooling to improve cycling time-trial performance. International journal of sports physiology and performance. 2019;14(3):323-30.
210 علوم زیستی ورزشی، دورة 13 ، شمارة 2، تابستان 1400
20. Bongers CC, Thijssen DH, Veltmeijer MT, Hopman MT, Eijsvogels TM. Precooling and percooling (cooling during exercise) both improve performance in the heat: a meta-analytical review. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(6):377-84.
21. Azad A, Mousavi M, Gorzi A, Ghasemnian A. The effect of precooling on exhaustive performance in the hot environment. Asian journal of sports medicine. 2016;7(3).
22. Wohlfert TM, Miller KC. Precooling, Exertional Heatstroke Risk Factors, and Postexercise Cooling Rates. Aerospace medicine and human performance. 2019;90(1):12-7.
23. Watkins ER, Hayes M, Watt P, Richardson AJ. Practical pre-cooling methods for occupational heat exposure. Applied ergonomics. 2018;70:26-33.
24. Xu M, Wu Z, Dong Y, Qu C, Xu Y, Qin F, et al. A Mixed-Method Approach of Pre-Cooling Enhances High-Intensity Running Performance in the Heat. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2021;20(1):26-34.
25. Ross ML, Garvican LA, Jeacocke NA, Laursen PB, Abbiss CR, Martin DT, et al. Novel precooling strategy enhances time trial cycling in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(1):123-33.
26. Jacobs I, Martineau L, Vallerand AL. Thermoregulatory thermogenesis in humans during cold stress. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. 1994;22(1):221-50.
27. Choo HC, Nosaka K, Peiffer JJ, Ihsan M, Abbiss CR. Ergogenic effects of precooling with cold water immersion and ice ingestion: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Sport Science. 2018;18(2):170-81.
28. Marsh D, Sleivert G. Effect of precooling on high intensity cycling performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 1999;33(6):393-7.
29. Stevens CJ, Kittel A, Sculley DV, Callister R, Taylor L, Dascombe BJ. Running performance in the heat is improved by similar magnitude with pre-exercise cold-water immersion and mid-exercise facial water spray. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2017;35(8):798-805.
30. Hasegawa H, Takatori T, Komura T, Yamasaki M. Combined effects of pre-cooling and water ingestion on thermoregulation and physical capacity during exercise in a hot environment. Journal of sports sciences. 2006;24(1):3-9.
31. Duffield R, Marino FE. Effects of pre-cooling procedures on intermittent-sprint exercise performance in warm conditions. European journal of applied physiology. 2007;100(6):727-35.
32. Tyka A, Pałka T, Tyka A, Cisoń T, Szyguła Z. The influence of ambient temperature on power at anaerobic threshold determined based on blood lactate concentration and myoelectric signals. International journal of occupational medicine and environmental health. 2009;22(1):1-6.
33. Pluncevic Gligoroska J, Manchevska S, Nikova Gudevska D, Todorovska L. Bruce Test Results And Body Mass Components In U20 Soccer Players. Research in Physical Education, Sport & Health. 2014;3(2).
34. Machado AF, Ferreira PH, Micheletti JK, de Almeida AC, Lemes ÍR, Vanderlei FM, et al. Can Water Temperature and Immersion Time Influence the Effect of Cold Water
اثر غوطهوری در آب خنک بر زمان واماندگی، مقدار لاکتات و شاخصهای الکترولیتی ... 211
Immersion on Muscle Soreness? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine. 2016;46(4):503-14.
35. Bleakley C, McDonough S, Gardner E, Baxter GD, Hopkins JT, Davison GW. Cold-water immersion (cryotherapy) for preventing and treating muscle soreness after exercise. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2012;2012(2):Cd008262.
36. Hohenauer E, Taeymans J, Baeyens JP, Clarys P, Clijsen R. The Effect of Post-Exercise Cryotherapy on Recovery Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PloS one. 2015;10(9):e0139028.
37. González-Alonso J, Teller C, Andersen SL, Jensen FB, Hyldig T, Nielsen BJJoap. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. 1999;86(3):1032-9.
38. Gregson W, Drust B, Batterham A, Cable NJEjoap. The effects of pre-warming on the metabolic and thermoregulatory responses to prolonged submaximal exercise in moderate ambient temperatures. 2002;86(6):526-33.
39. Marino F, Booth J. Whole body cooling by immersion in water at moderate temperatures. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 1998;1(2):73-81.
40. Griggs KE, Havenith G, Paulson TA, Price MJ, Goosey-Tolfrey VLJJos, sport mi. Effects of cooling before and during simulated match play on thermoregulatory responses of athletes with tetraplegia. 2017;20(9):819-24.
41. Kay D, Taaffe DR, Marino FE. Whole-body pre-cooling and heat storage during self-paced cycling performance in warm humid conditions. Journal of Sports Sciences. 1999;17(12):937-44.
42. Faulkner SH, Hupperets M, Hodder S, Havenith G. Conductive and evaporative precooling lowers mean skin temperature and improves time trial performance in the heat. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2015;25:183-9.
43. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. High skin temperature and hypohydration impair aerobic performance. Experimental physiology. 2012;97(3):327-32.
44. Galloway S, Maughan RJ. Effects of ambient temperature on the capacity to perform prolonged cycle exercise in man. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 1997;29(9):1240-9.
45. Brück K, Olschewski H. Body temperature related factors diminishing the drive to exercise. Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology. 1987;65(6):1274-80.
46. Cheuvront SN, Carter III R, Castellani JW, Sawka MN. Hypohydration impairs endurance exercise performance in temperate but not cold air. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2005;99(5):1972-6.
47. Périard JD, Cramer MN, Chapman PG, Caillaud C, Thompson MW. Cardiovascular strain impairs prolonged self‐paced exercise in the heat. Experimental physiology. 2011;96(2):134-44.
48. Walloe L. Arterio-venous anastomoses in the human skin and their role in temperature control. 2016;3(1):92-103.
212 علوم زیستی ورزشی، دورة 13 ، شمارة 2، تابستان 1400
49. Klous L, Siegers E, van den Broek J, Folkerts M, Gerrett N, van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MS, et al. Effects of Pre-Cooling on Thermophysiological Responses in Elite Eventing Horses. 2020;10(9):1664.
50. Monazzami A, Maleki Sadeghi H, Hematfar AJJoAiMM. The Effects of 30-minute Whole-Body Pre-Cooling on Anaerobic Performance Indices in Women Futsal Players. 2020;7(4).
51. Hinojosa JN, Hearon CM, Kowalsky RJJSSfH. Blood lactate response to active recovery in athletes vs. non-athletes. 2021:1-7.
52. No M, Kwak H-B. Effects of environmental temperature on physiological responses during submaximal and maximal exercises in soccer players. Integrative medicine research. 2016;5(3):216-22.
53. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW, Montain SJ, Sawka MN. Mechanisms of aerobic performance impairment with heat stress and dehydration. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2010;109(6):1989-95.
54. Girard O, Brocherie F, Bishop D. Sprint performance under heat stress: a review. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2015;25:79-89.
55. Clarke N, Maclaren D, Reilly T, Drust B. Carbohydrate ingestion and pre-cooling improves exercise capacity following soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in the heat. European journal of applied physiology. 2011;111(7):1447-55.
56. Klausen K, Dill D, Phillips Jr E, McGregor D. Metabolic reactions to work in the desert. Journal of applied physiology. 1967;22(2):292-6.
57. Van Nieuwenhoven M, Vriens B, Brummer R-J, Brouns F. Effect of dehydration on gastrointestinal function at rest and during exercise in humans. European journal of applied physiology. 2000;83(6):578-84.
58. Heer M, Baisch F, Kropp J, Gerzer R, Drummer C. High dietary sodium chloride consumption may not induce body fluid retention in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 2000;278(4):F585-F95.
59. Maughan R. Sports Nutrition/Ronald J. Maughan, Louise M. Burke. Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science Blackwell Science Ltd. 2002;200.
60. Costill D. Water and electrolyte requirements during exercise. Clinics in sports medicine. 1984;3(3):639-48.
2. Nybo L, Rasmussen P, Sawka MN. Performance in the heat—physiological factors of importance for hyperthermia‐induced fatigue. Comprehensive Physiology. 2011;4(2):657-89.
3. Jones PR, Barton C, Morrissey D, Maffulli N, Hemmings S. Pre-cooling for endurance exercise performance in the heat: a systematic review. BMC medicine. 2012;10(1):166.
اثر غوطهوری در آب خنک بر زمان واماندگی، مقدار لاکتات و شاخصهای الکترولیتی ... 209
4. Brotherhood JR. Heat stress and strain in exercise and sport. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2008;11(1):6-19.
5. Wingo JE, Low DA, Keller DM, Brothers RM, Shibasaki M, Crandall CG. Skin blood flow and local temperature independently modify sweat rate during passive heat stress in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 2010.
6. Wendt D, Van Loon LJ, Lichtenbelt WDM. Thermoregulation during exercise in the heat. Sports medicine. 2007;37(8):669-82.
7. Nybo L. Hyperthermia and fatigue. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2008.
8. González-Alonso J, Calbet JA. Reductions in systemic and skeletal muscle blood flow and oxygen delivery limit maximal aerobic capacity in humans. Circulation. 2003;107(6):824-30.
9. Fitts RH. Cellular mechanisms of muscle fatigue. Physiological reviews. 1994;74(1):49-94.
10. Lamb GD, Stephenson DG. Point: lactic acid accumulation is an advantage during muscle activity. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md: 1985). 2006;100(4):1410.
11. Jentjens RL, Wagenmakers AJ, Jeukendrup AE. Heat stress increases muscle glycogen use but reduces the oxidation of ingested carbohydrates during exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2002;92(4):1562-72.
12. Parkin J, Carey M, Zhao S, Febbraio M. Effect of ambient temperature on human skeletal muscle metabolism during fatiguing submaximal exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1999;86(3):902-8.
13. Bongers CC, Hopman MT, Eijsvogels TM. Cooling interventions for athletes: an overview of effectiveness, physiological mechanisms, and practical considerations. Temperature. 2017;4(1):60-78.
14. Gibson OR, James CA, Mee JA, Willmott AG, Turner G, Hayes M, et al. Heat alleviation strategies for athletic performance: a review and practitioner guidelines. Temperature. 2020;7(1):3-36.
15. Ross M, Abbiss C, Laursen P, Martin D, Burke L. Precooling methods and their effects on athletic performance. Sports Medicine. 2013;43(3):207-25.
16. Siegel R, Maté J, Watson G, Nosaka K, Laursen PB. Pre-cooling with ice slurry ingestion leads to similar run times to exhaustion in the heat as cold water immersion. Journal of sports sciences. 2012;30(2):155-65.
17. James C, Richardson A, Watt P, Gibson O, Maxwell N. Physiological responses to incremental exercise in the heat following internal and external precooling. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2015;25:190-9.
18. Montain SJ, Coyle EF. Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1992;73(4):1340-50.
19. Faulkner SH, Broekhuijzen I, Raccuglia M, Hupperets M, Hodder SG, Havenith G. The threshold ambient temperature for the use of precooling to improve cycling time-trial performance. International journal of sports physiology and performance. 2019;14(3):323-30.
210 علوم زیستی ورزشی، دورة 13 ، شمارة 2، تابستان 1400
20. Bongers CC, Thijssen DH, Veltmeijer MT, Hopman MT, Eijsvogels TM. Precooling and percooling (cooling during exercise) both improve performance in the heat: a meta-analytical review. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(6):377-84.
21. Azad A, Mousavi M, Gorzi A, Ghasemnian A. The effect of precooling on exhaustive performance in the hot environment. Asian journal of sports medicine. 2016;7(3).
22. Wohlfert TM, Miller KC. Precooling, Exertional Heatstroke Risk Factors, and Postexercise Cooling Rates. Aerospace medicine and human performance. 2019;90(1):12-7.
23. Watkins ER, Hayes M, Watt P, Richardson AJ. Practical pre-cooling methods for occupational heat exposure. Applied ergonomics. 2018;70:26-33.
24. Xu M, Wu Z, Dong Y, Qu C, Xu Y, Qin F, et al. A Mixed-Method Approach of Pre-Cooling Enhances High-Intensity Running Performance in the Heat. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2021;20(1):26-34.
25. Ross ML, Garvican LA, Jeacocke NA, Laursen PB, Abbiss CR, Martin DT, et al. Novel precooling strategy enhances time trial cycling in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(1):123-33.
26. Jacobs I, Martineau L, Vallerand AL. Thermoregulatory thermogenesis in humans during cold stress. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. 1994;22(1):221-50.
27. Choo HC, Nosaka K, Peiffer JJ, Ihsan M, Abbiss CR. Ergogenic effects of precooling with cold water immersion and ice ingestion: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Sport Science. 2018;18(2):170-81.
28. Marsh D, Sleivert G. Effect of precooling on high intensity cycling performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 1999;33(6):393-7.
29. Stevens CJ, Kittel A, Sculley DV, Callister R, Taylor L, Dascombe BJ. Running performance in the heat is improved by similar magnitude with pre-exercise cold-water immersion and mid-exercise facial water spray. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2017;35(8):798-805.
30. Hasegawa H, Takatori T, Komura T, Yamasaki M. Combined effects of pre-cooling and water ingestion on thermoregulation and physical capacity during exercise in a hot environment. Journal of sports sciences. 2006;24(1):3-9.
31. Duffield R, Marino FE. Effects of pre-cooling procedures on intermittent-sprint exercise performance in warm conditions. European journal of applied physiology. 2007;100(6):727-35.
32. Tyka A, Pałka T, Tyka A, Cisoń T, Szyguła Z. The influence of ambient temperature on power at anaerobic threshold determined based on blood lactate concentration and myoelectric signals. International journal of occupational medicine and environmental health. 2009;22(1):1-6.
33. Pluncevic Gligoroska J, Manchevska S, Nikova Gudevska D, Todorovska L. Bruce Test Results And Body Mass Components In U20 Soccer Players. Research in Physical Education, Sport & Health. 2014;3(2).
34. Machado AF, Ferreira PH, Micheletti JK, de Almeida AC, Lemes ÍR, Vanderlei FM, et al. Can Water Temperature and Immersion Time Influence the Effect of Cold Water
اثر غوطهوری در آب خنک بر زمان واماندگی، مقدار لاکتات و شاخصهای الکترولیتی ... 211
Immersion on Muscle Soreness? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine. 2016;46(4):503-14.
35. Bleakley C, McDonough S, Gardner E, Baxter GD, Hopkins JT, Davison GW. Cold-water immersion (cryotherapy) for preventing and treating muscle soreness after exercise. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2012;2012(2):Cd008262.
36. Hohenauer E, Taeymans J, Baeyens JP, Clarys P, Clijsen R. The Effect of Post-Exercise Cryotherapy on Recovery Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PloS one. 2015;10(9):e0139028.
37. González-Alonso J, Teller C, Andersen SL, Jensen FB, Hyldig T, Nielsen BJJoap. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. 1999;86(3):1032-9.
38. Gregson W, Drust B, Batterham A, Cable NJEjoap. The effects of pre-warming on the metabolic and thermoregulatory responses to prolonged submaximal exercise in moderate ambient temperatures. 2002;86(6):526-33.
39. Marino F, Booth J. Whole body cooling by immersion in water at moderate temperatures. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 1998;1(2):73-81.
40. Griggs KE, Havenith G, Paulson TA, Price MJ, Goosey-Tolfrey VLJJos, sport mi. Effects of cooling before and during simulated match play on thermoregulatory responses of athletes with tetraplegia. 2017;20(9):819-24.
41. Kay D, Taaffe DR, Marino FE. Whole-body pre-cooling and heat storage during self-paced cycling performance in warm humid conditions. Journal of Sports Sciences. 1999;17(12):937-44.
42. Faulkner SH, Hupperets M, Hodder S, Havenith G. Conductive and evaporative precooling lowers mean skin temperature and improves time trial performance in the heat. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2015;25:183-9.
43. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. High skin temperature and hypohydration impair aerobic performance. Experimental physiology. 2012;97(3):327-32.
44. Galloway S, Maughan RJ. Effects of ambient temperature on the capacity to perform prolonged cycle exercise in man. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 1997;29(9):1240-9.
45. Brück K, Olschewski H. Body temperature related factors diminishing the drive to exercise. Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology. 1987;65(6):1274-80.
46. Cheuvront SN, Carter III R, Castellani JW, Sawka MN. Hypohydration impairs endurance exercise performance in temperate but not cold air. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2005;99(5):1972-6.
47. Périard JD, Cramer MN, Chapman PG, Caillaud C, Thompson MW. Cardiovascular strain impairs prolonged self‐paced exercise in the heat. Experimental physiology. 2011;96(2):134-44.
48. Walloe L. Arterio-venous anastomoses in the human skin and their role in temperature control. 2016;3(1):92-103.
212 علوم زیستی ورزشی، دورة 13 ، شمارة 2، تابستان 1400
49. Klous L, Siegers E, van den Broek J, Folkerts M, Gerrett N, van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MS, et al. Effects of Pre-Cooling on Thermophysiological Responses in Elite Eventing Horses. 2020;10(9):1664.
50. Monazzami A, Maleki Sadeghi H, Hematfar AJJoAiMM. The Effects of 30-minute Whole-Body Pre-Cooling on Anaerobic Performance Indices in Women Futsal Players. 2020;7(4).
51. Hinojosa JN, Hearon CM, Kowalsky RJJSSfH. Blood lactate response to active recovery in athletes vs. non-athletes. 2021:1-7.
52. No M, Kwak H-B. Effects of environmental temperature on physiological responses during submaximal and maximal exercises in soccer players. Integrative medicine research. 2016;5(3):216-22.
53. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW, Montain SJ, Sawka MN. Mechanisms of aerobic performance impairment with heat stress and dehydration. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2010;109(6):1989-95.
54. Girard O, Brocherie F, Bishop D. Sprint performance under heat stress: a review. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2015;25:79-89.
55. Clarke N, Maclaren D, Reilly T, Drust B. Carbohydrate ingestion and pre-cooling improves exercise capacity following soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in the heat. European journal of applied physiology. 2011;111(7):1447-55.
56. Klausen K, Dill D, Phillips Jr E, McGregor D. Metabolic reactions to work in the desert. Journal of applied physiology. 1967;22(2):292-6.
57. Van Nieuwenhoven M, Vriens B, Brummer R-J, Brouns F. Effect of dehydration on gastrointestinal function at rest and during exercise in humans. European journal of applied physiology. 2000;83(6):578-84.
58. Heer M, Baisch F, Kropp J, Gerzer R, Drummer C. High dietary sodium chloride consumption may not induce body fluid retention in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 2000;278(4):F585-F95.
59. Maughan R. Sports Nutrition/Ronald J. Maughan, Louise M. Burke. Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science Blackwell Science Ltd. 2002;200.
60. Costill D. Water and electrolyte requirements during exercise. Clinics in sports medicine. 1984;3(3):639-48.
)